Catholic and Hindu Beliefs in Gender and Sexuality

Introduction & Overview

This essay aims to compare and contrast specific aspects of Catholicism and Hinduism, more specifically their stands on gender, sexuality and violence.

Catholicism and Hinduism are two of the world’s greatest religions; the former originated in the west and spread across the world, whereas the latter is followed primarily in the Indian subcontinent and to some extent in the Southeast Asian states (Zeskind, 1987). Catholicism and Hinduism are essentially different in their approach towards God and religion, Catholicism being theistic and Hinduism pantheistic (Zeskind, 1987). Two essential points of Christianity, namely sin and salvation, are missing in Hinduism. The two religions nevertheless have several points of similarity (Van Horn, 2006). Hindus worship a number of gods and Catholics worship several saints; both of them make use of the burning of candles and incense before the statues for purposes of worship (Van Horn, 2006). Both religions make use of images, icons, music and rituals. Catholics chant rosary prayers, whilst Hindus chant mantras; both of them have tremendously wealthy temples full of statues and golden artefacts and make use of priesthoods that intermediate between humans and gods (Van Horn, 2006). Such similarities and dissimilarities notwithstanding, these two religions have a distinct and deeply entrenched religious ethos and epistemologies that govern their practice and the attitudes, approaches and behaviours of their members (Zeskind, 1987).

This short paper aims to compare and contrast Catholic and Hindu approaches towards gender, sexuality and violence in order to arrive at interesting and informative insights.

Discussion and Analysis

C.S. Lewis, when he decided to forsake atheism, looked around in the global religious supermarket and reduced his choice to Christianity or Hinduism (Zeskind, 1987). Religions, he stated, are like soups. Some are thin and clear (like Unitarianism and Confucianism) and others are dark and thick (like paganism). Catholicism and Hinduism are, on the other hand, both thin (philosophical) and thick (sacramental and mysterious) (Zeskind, 1987). Such philosophical and sacramental elements are evident in their approaches to various issues (Zeskind, 1987).

Gender and Sex

Gender and sex have been subjects of significant controversy, intrigue, debate and discussion in the history of the Catholic Church (Van Horn, 2006). With the cultural influence of the Catholic Church being immense, particularly in western society, Christian concepts, which were introduced and implemented in evangelised societies across the world by the church, have significantly impacted entrenched and established perspectives on sex and gender (Van Horn, 2006). Practices like polygamy, which were followed by various societies in Europe, Latin America, Africa and the Roman Empire, were eliminated on account of Catholic evangelisation. Catholic missionaries led campaigns against slavery, including sexual slavery of women, condemned infanticide (female infanticide was particularly common in historical times), incest, divorce, polygamy, and marital infidelity for both men and women (Van Horn, 2006). Critics of the Catholic Church have, however, stated that the teachings of St. Paul, scholastic theologians and the fathers of the church, have perpetuated the notion of female inferiority being a divine ordinate, even though church teaching officially thinks of men and women to be different but equal and complementary (Van Horn, 2006).

Catholic approaches towards sex are predicated upon the concept of male and female equality (Zeskind, 1987). Human engagement in sex, the Catholic religion states, is sacred and holy within the context of marriage and represents a comprehensive, mutual and lifelong arrangement between a man and a woman (Zeskind, 1987). Sexual activity between man and wife does not allow for the occurrence of polygamy and concubinage, which were exceedingly common in diverse cultures before the spread of Catholicism (Zeskind, 1987).

The church teaches that men and women are equal and complement each other. Sex between the two is thus divine in design, supportive of man and women, made in the image of God and an essentially dignified act (Van Horn, 2006). The Catholic Church, during the medieval ages, regulated sexual activity strictly, often imposing harsh punishments on wrongdoers (Zeskind, 1987). Common sexual sins included masturbation, sex, before and outside of marriage, homosexuality and bestiality (Zeskind, 1987). The church perceived sex to be evil and sinful if it was not meant for procreation, and any sort of non-vaginal sex was seen to be sinful (Zeskind, 1987).

Adultery was in fact segregated into various categories like simple fornication, prostitution, deflowering of virgins, intercourse with nuns, homosexuality and incest, and sexual offences were punished in various ways, ranging from public confessions, requests for community forgiveness, begging at the entrance of the church, public whippings in the churchyard and being paraded in the church with a lighted candle before Sunday mass (Van Horn, 2006). It is important to appreciate that the Catholic Church only allows men to be ordained through the Sacrament of holy orders (Van Horn, 2006). This rule is based on the perspective that Jesus had 12 chosen apostles, all of whom were men, the implication being that women should not thus participate in the clergy (Zeskind, 1987). Whilst the Catholic Church is slowly adapting to modern times, it continues to prohibit women from taking up religion as a career and to oppose homosexuality or lesbianism (Van Horn, 2006).

Hinduism has traditionally considered women to be hierarchically inferior to men. The Manusmriti, one of the most widely known Dharmashastras, (holy books) depicts women to be totally subservient to men (Easwaran, 2011). It states that a girl must listen to her father, a wife to her husband and a widow to her sons. Women, in other Hindu religious texts, have been prohibited from learning the Vedas, engaging in important rituals and holding high religious positions (Gandhi, 1983). Women in classical Hindu texts have also been perceived to be inferior to men and relegated to the level of shudras, i.e. lower castes, regardless of their actual birth caste (Shiva, 2011). This is, however, only half the picture because women, whilst subjected to denigration, are also worshipped in the forms of numerous goddesses (Shiva, 2011). Goddesses like Laxmi and Parvati represent model wives and mothers, whilst Durga and Kali personify justice and fierceness outside the control of any male god (Shiva, 2011).

With regard to sexuality, Hinduism states that physical love is an essential part of life, Kama, i.e. sexual activity, being one of the four purposes of life along with wealth or power, righteousness and salvation (Clooney, 2005). Physical love, Hinduism states, should, however, fall within the limitations of Dharma, namely the confines of marriage (Clooney, 2005). Marriage is allowed to an individual only when he moves from being a celibate student, i.e. a brahmachari to a householder (Van Horn, 2006). He must further renounce sex upon entering the stage of sanyas or meditation. It is interesting to note that Shiva, the ascetic God of Hinduism, owes his power and energy to his control of sexuality (Van Horn, 2006). Thus, whilst sexual activity is considered to be an essential part of adult married life, its control is looked upon with awe and respect (Gandhi, 1983).

Violence

The relationship between Catholicism and violence has been the subject of extensive debate and discussion because whilst some teachings of Christianity advocate love, peace and compassion; others justify hatred and violence (Bellitto, 2014). Catholicism constantly focuses upon peace, compassion and forgiveness, despite the fact that Catholic fathers have struggled since the early days of the Catholic religion to justify the use of force (Boff & Boff, 1987). Such attempts have resulted in the development of the Just War theory, a doctrine for the moral justification of war through the use of several criteria (Boff & Boff, 1987). These criteria are split into two groups, the right to go to war and the right to conduct war (Robinson, 2003). The Just War theory postulates that war, whilst undesirable, may not always be the worst option (Struckmeyer, 1971). Many authors have also highlighted the contrast between Christianity’s stated focus upon love and peace and its historical past of violence within Christian groups (McTernan, 2003). Catholics mercilessly persecuted and massacred thousands of Protestants in their homes on Saint Bartholomew’s day in 1752 (McTernan, 2003). Protestant leaders subsequently hunted down Catholic priests, especially in England, after the creation of the Anglican Church (MacMullen, 1997).

Several experts have argued that the Catholic Church suffers from a confusion of loyalties, focusing upon love and compassion on the one hand, and fostering violence on the other (Avalos, 2005). Whilst early Christianity, before 313 AD, was a pacifist religion, subsequent centuries, especially the 11th century AD, saw the purposeful conduct of religious wars in the name of freeing Jerusalem from Muslim occupation (McTernan, 2003).

It is, however, also impossible to ignore the long tradition of opposition to violence in Catholicism (Phillips, 2008). Clement of Alexandria, a Christian theological expert who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria stated that Christianity was absolutely opposed to any form of violence (Avalos, 2005). Later day Christian evangelists like Martin Luther King have also perceived non-violence as a Christian scriptural doctrine (Tyerman, 2006).

Hinduism is globally known for the concept of Ahimsa or non violence. Ancient Hindu texts, dated before 1700 BC, indirectly mentioned Ahimsa without placing too much emphasis on it, whilst discussing ritual animal sacrifices (BBC News, 2005). Hindu scripts revised many ritual practices over time, which in turn resulted in increasing refinement and focus on ahimsa (Avalos, 2005). The concept of ahimsa or non-violence became the highest virtue by 500 BC, i.e. the late Vedic era, as exemplified by a passage in the Rig-Veda on the need to cause no harm to anybody or anything (Avalos, 2005). It is interesting to know that whilst ahimsa does not find much mention in the principal Upanishads, the Mahabharata, the globally famous Hindu Epic mentions non-violence as the highest moral virtue a number of times (Chapple, 1990). The Mahabharata states that ahimsa is the highest virtue, the greatest gift, the best suffering, the finest strength, the greatest happiness and the greatest teaching (Chapple, 1990).

The focus on ahimsa is also evident in the fact that more than 50% of contemporary Hindus are non vegetarian (Miller & Miller, 2004). Hindu texts state that whilst war should be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue, it should be reported to when the cause is just, the purpose virtuous, the method lawful and the aim peace (Miller & Miller, 2004). It is important to note that Hindu scholars have not been able to arrive at a consensus between pacifism and the theory of Just War, as enunciated in the Mahabharata, where the battle field is the soul, the war is in each human being and where the higher impulses of man struggle against his human desires. Mahatma Gandhi, along with other Indian spiritual figures like Swami Vivekananda and Ramana Maharishi, focused upon the importance of non-violence (Van Horn, 2006: Shiva, 2011). Gandhi, in fact, applied the concept of non-violence with tremendous success, developing a strong collective non-violent movement and using it to gain political freedom from British colonial rulers (Chapple, 1990).

Conclusions and Recommendations

This essay aimed to compare and contrast Catholic and Hindu religious approaches towards gender, sexuality and violence. Theological questioning of this type, which concerns the asking of basic and complex questions about existence, helps in the critical and creative interpretation and understanding of religious sources, the connection of ultimate questions to faith and practice, and thus finally in relating theological knowledge to meaningful action, the ultimate purpose of life (McMinn, 2012).

The study revealed that Catholicism, from its early stages, officially professed and practised equality of men and women, driving out in the process entrenched habits of polygamy, concubinage, female slavery and female infanticide (Van Horn, 2006). It went even further by making sex outside marriage a sin and a punishable offence. Such focus upon female equality was, however, somewhat diluted by the fact that the Catholic Church excluded women from priestly duties for practically 2000 years, stating that the apostles chosen by Jesus were all men (Van Horn, 2006).

Hinduism also very clearly reflects such ambivalence towards women, worshipping them on the one hand in the form of goddesses of learning, wealth, justice and destruction and subordinating them on the other two men in every phase of their lives (Shiva, 2011). The approach of these religions towards violence is equally contradictory and confusing (Shiva, 2011). Catholicism focuses upon love and peace but has a bloody history of violence and has developed doctrines that can be used to obtain religious justification for violent conflict (Shiva, 2011).

Hinduism in this regard, is somewhat more categorical, focusing strongly upon the need and the moral superiority of achievement of non-violence. Such focus on non-violence is, however, disturbed by the reverence accorded by the Hindus to the Mahabharata, an immense tale of fratricidal war, where religious reasons are provided for different types of violent engagements. It must, however, be recognised that the Hindu religion, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries, witnessed the emergence of a number of spiritual pacifists. Gandhi, the most famous amongst them all, harnessed non-violence into a tremendously strong political movement that led to the freedom of India.

It can thus be concluded that whilst both these religions show similar ambivalent approaches towards gender and sexuality, Hinduism appears to be more committed to the idea of non-violence as a high moral achievement. The study for this essay reveals the need for students of religion to understand and appreciate the religious diversity that exists in this world and the ways in which different religions approach matters of existence and morality. The examination of such diversity from theological perspectives clearly helps students in their understanding of the faith, the divine and ultimate meaning in the context of religious thought and practice (McKim, 2012).

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