The use of Hadith in the Recording of Early Islam

Introduction & Overview

The Hadith essentially comprises information on the sayings and actions of the Prophet Mohammed, including his tacit approval or disagreement with something that was done or said in his presence.

It is important to appreciate that the Quran and Sunnah are regarded as the essential sources for the development of the Islamic religion (Berg, 2000). The Quran is the central religious text, believed to be the revelation of God, protected from corruption and distortion (Berg, 2000). It is believed that the Quran was revealed by God to the Prophet through the angel Gabriel over 23 years, from December 609 CE to his death in 632 CE (Berg, 2000). It was collected by Mohammed’s companions with the help of written and memorised Quranic materials (Hallaq, 1999). The Sunnah, on the other hand, represents the normative way of life for Muslims, based upon the teachings, sayings and practices of the Prophet, read together with the Quran (Hallaq, 1999).

It should be noted in this context that the Sunnah has developed over time on the basis of the Prophet’s explicit sayings, his implicit approvals and disapprovals and his habits and practices; its contents lay down the normative ways of dealing with people, institutions and the larger world (Juynboll, 2007). The Sunnah is closely associated with the Hadith, the recording of Mohammed’s sayings, actions, beliefs and implicit or tacit approvals or disapprovals by his companions (Gilchrist, 1986). The Hadith literature, it is important to realise, does not constitute a primary source of information because it was compiled from various oral reports some years after the death of the Prophet (Gilchrist, 1986). It is, however, considered, revered and appreciated as an important source of Islamic history, moral guidance and religious law, second only to the Quran (Azmi, 1978). It can be succinctly described as the Prophet’s biography perpetuated by the Islamic community for exemplification and obedience (Azmi, 1978). The development of Hadith is considered by diverse experts to be an important element of the first three centuries of Islamic history, and its study is perceived to provide a broad idea of the mind and ethos of Islam (Juynboll, 2007).

The veracity and authenticity of the Hadith has, however, been questioned and debated, with especial regard to the extent to which Hadith contents and reports can actually be attributed to the Prophet Mohammed (Falahi, 2010). Doubts and apprehensions about the authenticity and reliability of some portions of the Hadith have been advanced by western historical experts like Preserved Smith and Ignac Goldziher, who challenged its reliability (Falahi, 2010). The use of the Hadith has also been opposed by several Islamic scholars like Syed Ahmed Khan, Mohammed Iqbal and Ghulam Ahmed Parvaiz, who felt that significant portions of the Hadith were fabricated and could not be considered to be originated from Mohammed or to have historic credibility (Falahi, 2010). This short paper aims to examine various aspects of the development of Hadith and its criticism in order to determine its relevance as a record of early Islamic history.

Discussion and Analysis

The contents of the Hadith, it is claimed by many Islamic scholars, stem from several important characters of the early Islamic years, like the companions of the Prophet and Shia religious leaders (Lucas, 2004). Each and every Hadith consists of two elements, namely (1) the text of the Man of the Hadith and (2) the Isnad, which represents the chain of authorities reporting it (Lucas, 2004). The introduction of a Hadith is as such in the first person, namely “it was related to me by A, on the authority of B, on the authority of C, on the authority of D, from E (a companion of the Prophet Mohammed) that the Prophet said…..” (Musa, 2008). The focus on the Hadith was thus divided into two streams, namely the Man and the Isnad (Musa, 2008). Much of the analysis of Hadith has been on the veracity of the Isnad or the chain rather than on the queries of the Matn (Musa, 2008).

Ignac Goldziher, a globally known Hungarian Islamic scholar, published the Muhammedanische Studien in 1890, wherein he analysed the ways in which the Hadith reflected the various doctrinal and legal controversies that occurred in the two centuries post the death of Mohammed, rather than the words, sayings and actions of the Prophet himself (Milby, 2008). Goldziher stated that the overwhelming majority of the Hadiths were outcomes of the historical, social and religious conditions that were dominant in the first two centuries of Islam (Milby, 2008). The Hadith literature, he stated, contained several types of competing political opinions and perspectives (Warner, 2006). Whilst he did sometimes imply that some of the Hadith literature could contain authentic material that could be directly traced to the Prophet, he was unclear about the issue (Warner, 2006). He claimed that the significance of Sunnah had increased gradually and that the Prophetic traditions could not be treated as a reference source at the commencement of Islamic history (Warner, 2006).

Goldziher actually created a picture of Muslim society, wherein the creation and fabrication of Hadiths was widespread, with people often developing fictitious Hadiths for their political or other conveniences (Lucas, 2004). He argued that specific groups would either fabricate a number of Hadiths that supported their position or modify and alter existing traditions to reinforce their views (Milby, 2008). He additionally stated that Hadiths adopted by others would also be censored and that Muslim scholars did not recognise this because they were preoccupied with the Isnad rather than on the Matn (Milby, 2008).

Goldziher’s views have been supported by other western orientalists like Hurgronge and Lammens, both of whom were his contemporaries (Musa, 2008). Hurgronge stated that the Hadith literature was essentially produced by dominant Islamic groups in the first three centuries of Islam and reflected their views. Both Goldziher and Hurgronge agreed that different and sometimes competing groups made up Hadiths and used them to gain their objectives (Warner, 2006). They further claimed that the Hadith literature, as it developed, contained a number of elements of the old and new testaments and Roman law (Warner, 2006). Hurgronge stated that Muslim scholars when they realised this started sorting and eliminating Hadiths that were perceived to be negative and keeping those that were integral to Islamic tradition (Juynboll, 1983). He stated that it would be completely false and erroneous to consider that the Hadiths could be traced back to the Prophet and that his life and teachings could in any way be reconstructed on these traditions (Juynboll, 1983).

Lammens noticed numerous anachronisms in Hadith texts and stated that Muslim scholars did not notice them because they confined their efforts to the narrative chains (Isnad) and did not pay enough attention to the text, i.e. the Matn (Lucas, 2002). He stated that Islamic law appeared to be influenced by Roman law and that elements borrowed from foreign sources were being falsely attributed to Mohammed and his companions through fabricated Hadiths (Lucas, 2002). These elements had, however, been comprehensively assimilated into Islamic law, making them appear authentic and legal in their traditions (Lucas, 2002).

It is at this point necessary to dwell on the importance and use of the Hadith in compiling the Prophet’s biography, which is also closely associated with Islamic history (Warner, 2006). The tradition came to be a central factor in the shaping of law and society in the first century of the Prophet’s death and authority was increasingly developed through the association of Mohammed’s name and example with the law and social norms through the mechanism of the Hadith (Warner, 2006). The second-century after the death of the Prophet witnessed increasing elaboration of such relationships through the enhancement of formalism in processes (Meherally, 2011). Traditions needed to be sustained through the science of attestation for the satisfaction of rigorous official criteria of their relationship with Mohammed through the aegis of his companions by an undisturbed sequence of reportage (Meherally, 2011).

This process became so meticulous and scientific that it was fair to feel that such great completeness and satisfactoriness of such attestations could probably be deliberate and late in their origin (Lucas, 2004). It was clear that several usages and customs that were common to diverse non Arab societies before their Islamisation was incorporated into Islam through reputed or alleged traditions of Mohammed, even as care was taken to see that they were by and large, compatible with Islamic tradition (Lucas, 2004). With regard to the development of Hadith, if the meat of the matter or the Matn concerned Mohammed’s observation “seek knowledge, even if it is China”, it would be introduced through three or four people with the chain ending with a companion of Mohammed” (Meherally, 2011). The focus at all times was on the Isnad, rather than on the Matn (Meherally, 2011).

This focus on the Isnad allowed the development of an apparently objective and reasonably precise pattern of criteria (Milby, 2008). With it being ensured that adjacent names in the Isnad knew each other, there was little reason to disbelieve that they would listen to each other (Milby, 2008). The travels of these people were also investigated from time to time to verify whether they had crossed each other (Robinson, 2003). It was also important in the construction of the Isnad to establish the first link with the companion of the Prophet in order to reinforce its validity (Robinson, 2003).

The most important of all Hadith collections was that of Al Bukhari (CE 810-870), whose collection has a unique place in Islam as a work of significant historical importance and piety (Shafi, 2009). Al Bukhari, as a boy, went to Mecca on pilgrimage and gathered tradition during his travels (Shafi, 2009). His Al-Jami Al-Sahih, namely The Authentic Collection, took 16 years of editorial work and included 7397 Hadiths with full Isnad (Shafi, 2009). Removing repetitions, the number of net Hadiths amounted to 2762, obtained from approximately 600,000 memorised items (Milby, 2008). Al Bukhari arranged his Hadiths into 97 books and 3450 chapters that dwelt on different themes (Milby, 2008).

A number of other eminent historians also developed classical collections of traditions around this period. Abu Daud Al Sijistani developed his book of traditions that contained 4800 traditions on matters of jurisprudence, whilst Abu Issah Mohammed Al-Trimidhi edited Bukhari’s Sahih, adding notes on distinctive interpretations of law (Robinson, 2003). Abu Abdallah Ibnamajah, another historian of the 3rd century AH and the pupil of Abu Daud, also compiled a tradition of law with greater tolerance of less than satisfactory traditions (Motzki, 1991).

It is important to appreciate that the primary elements of Hadiths are provisions of law, which essentially enlarged Quranic legislation (Lucas, 2002). They also contain a diverse and extensive range of norms on moral, personal, social and commercial matters, as well as eschatological themes (Lucas, 2002). Various aspects of private and public conduct can be found there, from the ways of disposing date stones to death bed crisis, from the processes of ablution to the methods and duties of forgiveness, as also from the routine of digestion to the elaboration of the day of judgement (Motzki, 1991).
The Hadiths are detailed and scrupulous in their legal and ethical precepts and prescriptions, with there being numerous stories of integrity and tradition (Scott, 2004). Whilst Islamic in tradition and authority, the Hadiths bring within their purview the continuity of several cultures, there being significant evidence of Christian and Jewish elements, especially in the areas of eschatology (Scott, 2004). There is agreement that the imprint of Islam is always clear even though inputs are taken from several cultures and religions (Scott, 2004).

The criticisms levied by various western, oriental scholars on the authenticity of Hadiths, with regard to their connection with the explicit and implicit opinions of the Prophet Mohammed, have been taken up earlier (Robinson, 2003). It is, however, also important to appreciate that the authenticity of Hadiths has been questioned by several Islamic scholars as well. Meherally (2001) stated that the Hadiths contained several contradictions that could lead to doubts about their complete authenticity. It is also important to realise that the majority of the Hadiths were compiled two centuries after the death of the Prophet, which alone is enough to raise questions about their accuracy (Meherally, 2011). Whilst the Prophet permitted the actual recording of the revealed versus of the Quran and personally described them the scribes, the recording of the Hadiths are cloaked in uncertainty (Meherally, 2011).

It also appears that the compilers of the Hadith rejected numerous narrations because they were felt to be invented or fabricated (Jonathan & Brown, 2004). Various factions like the Sufic orders, the Kadaria and the Jabaria, attempted to justify their own schools of philosophy through the development of Hadiths (Jonathan & Brown, 2004). Some sayings in the Hadiths have also been erroneously attributed to the Hadiths (Hallaq, 1999). Milby (2008), in her thesis of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirath Rasool Allah, states that the author, in his biography of Mohammed, stated that the time period in which Ibn Issac’s biography was written was characterised by various groups competing for religious, political and economic superiority. Milby (2008) stated that such historical circumstances were instrumental in Ibn Issac’s desire to control the image of Mohammed and make it a model that Muslims would seek to emulate. Whilst Ibn Issac’s book certainly had historical basis, several liberties appeared to have been taken for controlling the image of Mohammed (Milby, 2008).

Conclusions and Recommendations

This paper takes up the discussion and study of the Hadiths from various perspectives, including their time period, the ways of their compilation, as well as the opinions of various western and Islamic scholars on their authenticity, with regard to the actual sayings, feelings and actions of Mohammed.

The study reveals that whilst the Hadiths are connected directly to the Prophet because they emanate from one or the other of his companions, the overwhelming majority of them were compiled more than two centuries after his death. There is little doubt that many of these compilations have been carried out with painstaking effort over long periods of time. They are extensive in nature and deal with diverse aspects of life, connecting various issues with the sayings of the Prophet, communicated by one of his companions through a strong of listeners. Efforts have also been made to ensure that the chain or Isnad appeared to be authentic, reliable and accurate. Various studies by western and Islamic historians, however, reveal the significant probability of chances of fabrication in these Hadiths, especially evident from the inclusion of numerous elements of other cultures into the Matns; which would make it exceedingly improbable for the Prophet to have uttered them. Islamic scholars have also pointed out some contradictions between the Quran, much of which was transcribed at the behest of Mohammed himself, and the Hadiths.

It can be concluded that whilst several doubts do exist about the authenticity of the Hadith, with specific regard to their direct emanation from the Prophet himself, the overwhelming majority of them were produced within the first three centuries of the Prophet’s death and thus formed an integral element of early Islamic history. There is little doubt of their importance in contemporary Islamic normative behaviour or in their association with Islamic history, regardless of the doubts about their actual tracing to the speech and actions of the Prophet.

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